Cleopatra

Cleopatra VII was the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt. She was born in 69 BCE, probably in Alexandria, and belonged to a Macedonian Greek dynasty that had ruled Egypt since the death of Alexander the Great. Cleopatra became queen in 51 BCE, initially ruling alongside her younger brother Ptolemy XIII.

A struggle for power led to civil conflict, and in 48 BCE she formed a political and personal alliance with the Roman general Julius Caesar. With his support, she regained the throne. Ancient sources highlight her education and political abilities and indicate that she knew several languages. Her relationship with Caesar produced a son, Caesarion, whom she presented as his father's heir.

After Caesar's assassination in 44 BCE, Cleopatra allied herself with Mark Antony, one of Rome's leading figures. Together they faced Octavian, Caesar's political heir and future emperor Augustus. Their forces were defeated at the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BCE. The following year, Octavian invaded Egypt, and Cleopatra and Mark Antony died soon afterward.

Cleopatra died in 30 BCE at the age of thirty-nine. Ancient accounts traditionally state that she died from a snake bite, but the exact circumstances remain uncertain. Egypt then became a province of the Roman Empire. Cleopatra's historical importance also lies in her role as a ruler who attempted to preserve the independence of Ptolemaic Egypt during a period of profound political change.