Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the second half of the 18th century and later spread to Europe and North America. It was a long transformation of production, transport and society. Machines increasingly replaced or assisted manual work, especially in textiles. The steam engine became an important source of mechanical power, while coal supplied much of the energy used by industry.

Improvements in iron production, along with canals and railways, made it easier to manufacture and transport goods. From the late 19th century, the use of steel, electricity and chemical industries expanded, bringing further economic and technological change. Industrialization transformed everyday life.

Factories drew workers into growing towns and cities, encouraging urbanization and wage labor. Working conditions were often difficult, with long hours, low wages and limited safety; women and children were employed in many industries. At the same time, industrial production increased the quantity and variety of goods and raised productivity.

Over the long term, living standards improved in many regions, but unevenly and often after social and political reforms. Industrialization also changed social classes, working relationships and international trade. The Industrial Revolution therefore helped create many of the economic and social structures of the modern industrial world.