Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire emerged in northwestern Anatolia at the end of the 13th century under Osman I, whose followers formed a small principality on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire. Over the following centuries, Ottoman rulers expanded their territory across Anatolia, the Balkans and the eastern Mediterranean. In 1453, Sultan Mehmed II conquered Constantinople, which became the empire’s capital and later known as Istanbul.

The Ottomans developed a centralized administration and a powerful army, including the Janissaries, an elite infantry corps. Their territories brought together Muslim and Christian communities as well as many different languages and cultures. At its height in the 16th century, under rulers such as Selim I and Süleyman I, the empire controlled large parts of southeastern Europe, the Middle East and North Africa.

Ottoman power lasted for more than six centuries, although its borders and political strength changed considerably over time. The state benefited from trade, taxation and control of important routes linking Europe, Asia and the Mediterranean. Its cities became centers of commerce, craftsmanship, scholarship and architecture. Ottoman rulers generally allowed religious communities to maintain their own institutions and leaders, within the framework of imperial law.

From the late 17th century onward, military setbacks, economic pressures, nationalist movements and competition from European powers increasingly challenged the empire. Reforms were introduced during the 19th century, but they could not prevent its decline. After its defeat in World War I, the empire was dissolved, and the Republic of Turkey was established in 1923.