Roman Empire

The Roman Empire developed from the Roman Republic, which had already extended its power across much of the Mediterranean. In 27 BCE, Octavian, later known as Augustus, became the first Roman emperor after years of civil war. Under his successors, Roman rule spread across large parts of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. At its greatest extent in the 2nd century CE, the empire surrounded much of the Mediterranean and included territories from Britain to Egypt and from the Iberian Peninsula to the Near East.

Roman armies defended and expanded the frontiers, while roads, ports and cities connected distant provinces. Roman law, administration and Latin left a lasting influence on many societies, although Greek remained important in the eastern regions. The empire was home to many peoples with different languages, customs and religious traditions. Roman authorities generally allowed numerous local practices to continue, although relations between the state and different communities changed over time.

Christianity, initially a minority religion, spread during the imperial period and was legalized under Constantine in the early 4th century. In 395 CE, the empire was permanently divided into eastern and western administrations, although both remained part of the Roman political world. The western empire faced political instability, economic difficulties, military pressures and the settlement of various Germanic peoples.

In 476 CE, the last Roman emperor in the West was deposed, a date traditionally used to mark the end of the Western Roman Empire. The Eastern Roman Empire, later known as the Byzantine Empire, continued for nearly another thousand years, until the fall of Constantinople in 1453.