Russian Empire

The Russian Empire was established in 1721 when Peter the Great adopted the title of emperor after Russia’s victory over Sweden in the Great Northern War. It grew from the earlier Tsardom of Russia and expanded over the following two centuries across Eastern Europe, northern and Central Asia, the Caucasus and, for a time, parts of North America. Its capital was Saint Petersburg for most of the imperial period, although Moscow remained an important political and cultural center.

The empire was ruled by the Romanov dynasty, which strengthened central authority while governing a vast territory inhabited by many different peoples, languages and religions. Under Catherine II in the 18th century, Russia expanded further toward the Black Sea and into parts of Eastern Europe. By the late 19th century, the empire had become one of the largest states in the world.

Russia’s expansion brought access to important resources and trade routes, but governing such an enormous territory was difficult. Society was highly unequal, and serfdom remained a major institution until its abolition in 1861. During the 19th century, industrialization, urban growth and railway construction gradually transformed the economy, while political opposition to autocratic rule increased.

Russia suffered heavy losses during the First World War, worsening existing economic and social problems. In 1917, the February Revolution forced Emperor Nicholas II to abdicate. A second revolution later that year brought the Bolsheviks to power. The monarchy was abolished, and the Russian Empire ceased to exist. After the Russian Civil War, the Soviet Union was established in 1922, marking a new political era.